Ingenpedia:Manual of Style/Biography

This page sets out guidelines for achieving visual and textual consistency in biographical articles and in biographical information in other articles; such consistency allows Ingenpedia to be used more easily. While this guideline focuses on biographies, its advice pertains, where applicable, to all articles that mention people. For a short version, see Ingenpedia:Biography dos and don'ts.

Lead section
The lead section must summarise the life and works of the person with due weight. When writing about controversies in the lead section of a biography, relevant material should neither be suppressed nor allowed to overwhelm: always pay scrupulous attention to reliable sources, and make sure the lead correctly reflects the entirety of the article. Write clinically, and let the facts speak for themselves. These concerns are especially pressing at biographies of living persons.

Well-publicized recent events affecting a subject, whether controversial or not, should be kept in historical perspective. What is most recent is not necessarily what is most noteworthy: new information should be carefully balanced against old, with due weight accorded to each.

When a subject dies, the lead need not be radically reworked; Ingenpedia is not a memorial site. Unless the cause of death is itself a reason for notability, a single sentence describing the death is usually sufficient, and often none is included in the lead at all, just a death date.

Opening paragraph
MoS guidelines for opening paragraphs should generally be followed, and the opening paragraph of a biographical article should establish notability, neutrally describe the person, and provide context. The opening paragraph should usually state:
 * 1) Name(s) and title(s), if any . Handling of the subject's name is covered below in.
 * 2) Dates of birth and death, if found in secondary sources (do not use primary sources for birth dates of living persons or other private details about them).
 * 3) Context (location or nationality);
 * 4) The noteworthy position(s) the person held, activities they took part in, or roles they played;
 * 5) Why the person is notable.

Birth date and place
The opening paragraph should usually have dates of birth and (when applicable) death. These dates (specific day–month–year) are important information about the subject, but if they are also mentioned in the body, the vital year range (in brackets after the person's full name) may be sufficient to provide context. For living persons, privacy should be considered. Birth and death places, if known, should be mentioned in the body of the article, and can appear in the lead if relevant to notability, but not in the opening brackets alongside the birth and death dates.

Birth and death are included only when needed for clarity. When given, use full words, whether immediately preceding a date or not:
 * William Alexander Spinks Jr. (1865–1933) was an American professional player of carom billiards in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. – no need for labels, and specific dates are in the article body
 * Gro Harlem Brundtland (... born Gro Harlem; 20 April 1939) is a Norwegian politician ... – "born" label used to introduce birth name

For an approximate date or range of dates, use c. (abbreviation for circa); at first occurrence this should be done with the template a.k.a., which explains the abbreviation: c. 1457. When the only date known for a historical subject is a date (or range) when they were alive, fl. for floruit is used; at first occurrence the  a.k.a.  template produces similar output: fl. 1432.

For full details on how to format simple and complex dates and ranges,.

Beyond the first paragraph of the lead section, birth and death details are not included after a name except in a case of special contextual relevance. Abbreviations like b. and d. can be used, if needed, when space is limited (e.g., in a table) and when used repetitively (e.g., in a list of people).

Context
The opening paragraph should usually provide context for the activities that made the person notable. In most modern-day cases, this will be the country of which the person is a citizen, national, or permanent resident; or, if the person is notable mainly for past events, the country where the person was a citizen, national, or permanent resident when the person became notable.

Ethnicity, religion, or sexuality should generally not be in the lead unless it is relevant to the subject's notability. Similarly, previous nationalities or the place of birth should not be mentioned in the lead unless they are relevant to the subject's notability.

Wherever possible, avoid defining a notable person, particularly in the title or first sentence, in terms of their relationships. Generally speaking, notability is not inherited, which means the fact that a person is the spouse of another notable person does not make that person notable.

Positions and roles
The lead sentence should describe the person as they are commonly described in reliable sources. The noteworthy position(s) or role(s) the person held should usually be stated in the opening paragraph. However, avoid overloading the lead paragraph with various and sundry roles; instead, emphasize what made the person notable. Incidental and non-noteworthy roles (i.e. activities that are not integral to the person's notability) should usually not be mentioned in the lead paragraph.

Examples

 * Cleopatra VII Philopator (Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; 69 – August 12, 30 BC), known to history simply as Cleopatra, was the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt ...
 * Francesco Petrarca (July 20, 1304 – July 19, 1374), commonly anglicized as Petrarch, was a scholar and poet of Renaissance Italy, who was one of the earliest humanists.
 * Cesar Estrada Chavez (March 31, 1927 – April 23, 1993) was an American labor leader and civil rights activist who, with Dolores Huerta, co-founded the National Farm Workers Association, which later became the United Farm Workers (UFW) ...
 * François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand (26 October 1916 – 8 January 1996) was a French statesman who was President of France from 1981 to 1995, ...

Names
Most of the examples throughout this section illustrate usage in the title sentence, but are generally applicable to personal names in any encyclopedic text unless the advice provided is explicitly about the lead section at the subject's own biographical article.

Text formatting
Standard English-language text formatting and capitalization rules apply to the names of individuals and groups, such as bands, troupes, teams/squads, and families. Example: in running text, the team is the Miami Heat, not The Miami Heat, except at the beginning of a sentence. .

First mention
While the article title should generally be the name by which the subject is most commonly known, the subject's full name, if known, should usually be given in the lead sentence (including middle names, if known, or middle initials). Many cultures have a tradition of not using the full name of a person in everyday reference, but the article should start with the complete version in most cases. For example:
 * From Fidel Castro: Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (August 13, 1926 – November 25, 2016) ...
 * From Muammar Gaddafi: Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi (معمر محمد أبو منيار القذافي; ; c. 1942 – 20 October 2011) ...
 * From Antonio Vidal (footballer): Antonio Vidal Caturla (25 March 1923 – 19 April 1999) ...

Changed names
In some cases, a subject may have changed their full name at some point after birth. In these cases, the birth name may be given in the lead as well, if relevant: In other cases, a subject may have changed name multiple times. Multiple former names may be mentioned in the lead, boldfaced if they redirect to the article. However, it is not always appropriate to list every previous name of a subject, only the birth name and those that were in use during the period of notability: The names should be distributed throughout the lead to mark major transitions in the subject's life:
 * From Jack Benny: Jack Benny (born Benjamin Kubelsky; February 14, 1894 – December 26, 1974) ...
 * From Bill de Blasio: Bill de Blasio (born Warren Wilhelm Jr.; May 8, 1961) ...
 * Bill de Blasio (born Warren Wilhelm Jr.; May 8, 1961) is a politician .... He was briefly known as Warren de Blasio-Wilhelm ...
 * Augustus (63 BC – 14 AD) was a Roman emperor .... He was born Gaius Octavius Thurinus into a wealthy family .... He assumed the name Octavian after his adoption ...

A person named in an article of which they are not the subject should be referred to by the name they used at the time being described in the article. For example, Pope John Paul I was known as Albino Luciani before he was elevated to the papacy, so material about the time before he became pope should use the name Albino Luciani. In some cases, it is helpful to the reader to clarify, e.g.: Albino Luciani (later to become Pope John Paul I). The principle of avoiding anachronistic naming is also usually employed in the subject's own biography (including that of John Paul I), especially when the article is no longer a short stub.

In the case of a living transgender or non-binary person, the birth name should be included in the lead sentence only if the person was notable under that name. One can introduce the birth name with either "born" or "formerly": If such a subject was not notable under their former name, it usually should not be included in that or any other article, even if some reliable sourcing exists for it. Treat the pre-notability name as a privacy interest separate from (and often greater than) the person's current name.
 * From Chelsea Manning, notable under prior name: Chelsea Elizabeth Manning (born Bradley Edward Manning; December 17, 1987) ...
 * From Laverne Cox, not notable under prior name: Laverne Cox (born May 29, 1972) ...

If a subject changed their surname (last name) for whatever reason (e.g. marriage, adoption, personal preference), then their surname at birth should generally also be given in the lead. Editors may denote this with "born" followed by the subject's full name; they may also use née (feminine) and né (masculine) followed by the surname, provided the term is linked at first occurrence. The templates and  provide this linking and do not require typing the é character.

Some practical examples:
 * From Courtney Love: Courtney Michelle Love (née Harrison; born July 9, 1964) is an American singer, songwriter, actress ...
 * From Jack White: John Anthony White (né Gillis; born July 9, 1975) is an American musician, singer, songwriter ...
 * From Barbara Flynn: Barbara Flynn (born Barbara Joy McMurray; 5 August 1948) is an English actress ...
 * From Marion Worth: Marion Worth (born Mary Ann Ward; July 4, 1930 – December 19, 1999) was an American country music singer ...

Initials
Use initials in a personal name only if the name is commonly written that way.

An initial is capitalized and is followed by a full point (period) and a space (e.g. J. R. R. Tolkien), unless: In such a case, treat it as a self-published name change. Examples include k.d. lang, CC Sabathia, and CCH Pounder.
 * the person demonstrably has a different, consistently preferred style for his or her own name;
 * an overwhelming majority of reliable sources use that variant style for that person.

In article text, a space after an initial (or an initial and a full point) and before another initial should be a non-breaking space:  (or use the  template). This also works inside links:, though only with   markup, not the template.

Initials in other languages are sometimes treated differently from usual English practice. For example, a name beginning with two letters representing a single sound is treated as a single two-character initial in some European languages (e.g., Th. for Theophilus), and hyphenated given names are sometimes abbreviated with the hyphen (J.-P. for Jean-Pierre). If reliable sources consistently use such a form for a particular person, use it on Ingenpedia as well.

Avoid formerly common multi-letter abbreviations used in English as a shorthand in letter-writing, genealogies, etc. (examples: Geo. = George; Jno. = John; Jna. = Jonathan; Thos. = Thomas; Jas. = James, Chas. = Charles), except in quotations and as they survive in trademarks (Geo. Hall & Sons). E.g., refer to the author as George W. Proctor, though some of his books have Geo. W. Proctor on the cover (the alternative form should redirect to his article).

With initials, it is not necessary to spell out why the article title and lead paragraph give a different name. For example, H. P. Lovecraft has that title, H. P. Lovecraft appears in his infobox, and his lead sentence just gives Howard Phillips Lovecraft ... was an American writer ..., without "explaining" to the reader what "H. P." stands for. Initials are not nicknames; do not put them in quotation marks or insert them in mid-name, as in John Thomas Smith better known as "J. T." Smith or John Thomas (J. T.) Smith.

Generational and regnal suffixes
Using Jr., Sr., or other such distinctions as a disambiguation technique is advised for cases in which the name with the suffix is well-attested in reliable sources. Otherwise, explain in longer form which party is meant, e.g. The younger Jackson was elected mayor of Wolverham in 1998.

Omission of the comma before Jr. or Sr. (or variations such as Jnr) is preferred.

In running text, in the unusual case that a comma is used before the suffix, then a comma (or equivalent) is also placed after it (Neil Brown, Jr., is an American actor; but prefer Neil Brown Jr. is an American actor).

When the surname is shown first, the suffix follows the given name, as Kennedy, John F. Jr. When the given name is omitted, omit the suffix—Kennedy, not Kennedy Jr.—except where the context requires disambiguation.

Do not place a comma before a Roman numeral name suffix, whether it is patronymic or regnal: use Otis D. Wright II, not Otis D. Wright, II.

The French fils ('son') and père ('father') can be used for subjects for whom this usage is typical in English-language works: Alexandre Dumas fils.

Pseudonyms, stage names, nicknames, hypocorisms, and common names
For people who are best known by a pseudonym, the legal name should usually appear first in the article, followed closely by the pseudonym. Follow this practice even if the article itself is titled with the pseudonym:
 * Louis Bert Lindley Jr. (June 29, 1919 – December 8, 1983), better known by the stage name Slim Pickens

Investigation in reliable sources may be needed to determine whether a subject known usually by a pseudonym has actually changed their legal name to match (e.g., Reginald Kenneth Dwight formally changed his name to Elton Hercules John early in his musical career). Where this is not the case, and where the subject uses a popular form of their name in everyday life, then care must be taken to avoid implying that a person who does not generally use all their forenames or who uses a familiar form has actually changed their name. Do not write, for example:
 * John Edwards (born Johnny Reid Edwards, June 10, 1953).

It is not always necessary to spell out why the article title and lead paragraph give a different name. If a person has a common English-language hypocorism (diminutive or abbreviation) used in lieu of a given name, it is presented between quotation marks or parentheses within or after their name. Example:
 * From Tom Hopper: Thomas Edward Hopper.

For any kind of alternative name, use formulations like the following (as applicable):
 * Timothy Alan Dick (born June 13, 1953), known professionally as Tim Allen
 * Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi (c. 1445 – May 17, 1510), better known as Sandro Botticelli
 * Ariadna Thalía Sodi Miranda (born 26 August 1971), known mononymously as Thalía

If a person is known by a nickname used in lieu of or in addition to a given name, and it is not a common hypocorism of one of their names, or a professional alias, it is usually presented between double quotation marks following the last given name or initial. The quotation marks are not put in lead-section boldface. Example:
 * From Bunny Berigan: Roland Bernard "Bunny" Berigan.
 * From Tina Fey: Elizabeth Stamatina "Tina" Fey.

A nickname can eventually become a professional alias, even the most common name for a person. Such a case loses the quotation marks, other than in the subject's lead section if introducing the nickname in mid-name. If the nickname is dominant (in general or in a particular context) it can often be used in other articles without further elaboration. Example: In the article (and in other articles) use: Magic Johnson left Michigan State after his sophomore season to enter the NBA draft. Dr. Ruth and Dr. Drew are trademarks; though they originated as informal nicknames, they do not require quotation marks.
 * From Magic Johnson: Earvin "Magic" Johnson Jr. (born August 14, 1959) is ...

If a nickname is used in place of the subject's entire name, it is usually given separately:
 * Alphonse Gabriel Capone ... sometimes known by the nickname "Scarface".

A leading "the" is not capitalized in a nickname, pseudonym, or other alias (except when the alias begins a sentence):
 * Use: Jack "the Assassin" Tatum; or: Jack Tatum, nicknamed "the Assassin"
 * Avoid: Jack "The Assassin" Tatum; and: Jack Tatum, nicknamed "The Assassin"

Nicknames should not be re-presented with additional name parts unless necessary for usage clarity.
 * Use: Earl "the Pearl" Strickland; or: Earl Strickland, nicknamed "Earl the Pearl"
 * Avoid: Earl Strickland, nicknamed "Earl the Pearl" Strickland

Common nicknames, aliases, and variants are usually given in boldface in the lead, especially if they redirect to the article, or are found on a disambiguation page or hatnote and link from those other names to the article. Boldface is not needed for obscure ones or a long list, and those that are not well known to our readers may not need to be in the lead at all. Foreign language details can make the lead sentence difficult to understand. The various nicknames are mostly how other mobsters—not so much the reliable sources—referred to Joey Aiuppa, and only two of them were widely reported, the rest being minor variants.
 * Use: Genghis Khan or Chinggis Khaan (born Temüjin; c. 1162 – August 18, 1227) was the founder of the Mongol Empire.
 * Avoid: Genghis Khan or Chinggis Khaan (Чингис хаан; ; c. 1162 – August 18, 1227), born Temüjin (Тэмүжин Temüjin; ), was the founder of the Mongol Empire.
 * Use: Joseph John Aiuppa (December 1, 1907 – February 22, 1997), also known as "Joey O'Brien" and later as "Joey Doves", was a Chicago mobster.
 * Avoid: Joseph John Aiuppa (December 1, 1907 – February 22, 1997), also known as "Joey O'Brien", "Joey O.", "O'Brien", "Joey Doves'", "Joey the Doves", and "Mourning Doves", was a Chicago mobster.

Nicknames and other aliases included must be frequently used by reliable sources in reference to the subject. For example, a sports journalist's one-off reference to a player as "the Atlanta panther" in purple prose does not constitute a nickname, and treating it as one is original research. Highlighting uncommon or disputed appellations in the lead section gives them undue weight, and may also be a more general neutrality problem if the phrase is laudatory or critical. Example: "Tricky Dick" does not appear in the lead of Richard Nixon; this label by his political opponents is covered, with context, in the article body.

Do not cram multiple hypocorisms and nicknames into the name in the lead sentence; complicated naming should be explained separately.
 * Poor, confusing example: William Emery "Emory, Spunk" Sparrow (September 15, 1897 – February 2, 1965) was a Canadian professional ice hockey forward....
 * Clear rewrite: William Emery Sparrow (September 15, 1897 – February 2, 1965) was a Canadian professional ice hockey forward.... As a professional player, he spelled his name Emory, and was commonly known by the nickname Spunk Sparrow. (The article title is Emory Sparrow, already establishing that as the common, primary name.)

Royal surnames
Only incorporate surnames in the opening line of royal biographies if they are known and if they are in normal use. But do not automatically presume that the name of a royal house is the personal surname of its members. In many cases it is not. For visual clarity, articles on monarchs should generally begin with the form "{name} {ordinal if appropriate} (full name – but without surname; birth and death dates, if applicable)", and articles on other royals should generally begin with the form "{royal title} {name} {ordinal if appropriate} (full name –  including surname if known; birth and death dates, if applicable)"; in both cases with the full name and dates information unformatted, but the title, name and ordinal that are outside the parenthesis, in bold. Using this format displays the most important information clearly without an unattractive excess of formatting. Other information on royal titles should be listed where appropriate in chronological order.

Subsequent use
After the initial mention, a person should generally be referred to by surname only – without an honorific prefix such as "Mr.", "Mrs.", "Ms.", "Miss", or "Mx", and without academic or professional prefixes like "Dr.", "Prof.", "Rev.", etc. – or may be referred to by a pronoun. For example:


 * Fred Smith was a Cubist painter in the early 20th century. He moved to Genoa, where he met singer Gianna Doe. Smith and Doe later married.

However, where a person does not have a surname but a patronymic (like many Icelanders, some Mongols, and those historical persons who are known by names-and-patronymics instead of surnames), then the proper form of reference is usually the given name. For example:


 * Iceland's 24th prime minister was Jóhanna Sigurðardóttir. Jóhanna was elected to the Althing in 1978.

Generally speaking, subjects should not otherwise be referred to by their given name; exceptions include royalty, e.g. Prince Charles or Charles. Any subject whose surname has changed should be referred to by their most commonly used name. If their most commonly used name includes their earlier surname, and you're discussing a period of their life before the surname change, refer to them by their prior surname. In other words, when discussing the early lives of Hillary and Bill Clinton, use "Rodham met Clinton while they were students at Yale", referring to Hillary using her then-current surname.

A member of the nobility may be referred to by title if that form of address would have been the customary way to refer to him or her; for example Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, may become the Earl of Leicester, the Earl, or just Leicester (if the context is clear enough) in subsequent mentions. Be careful not to give someone a title too soon; for example, one should use Robert Dudley or Dudley when describing events before his elevation to the peerage in 1564.

People who are best known by a pseudonym should be subsequently referred to by their pseudonymous surnames, unless they do not include a recognizable surname in the pseudonym (e.g. Sting, Snoop Dogg, the Edge), in which case the whole pseudonym is used. For people well known by one-word names, nicknames, or pseudonyms, but who often also use their legal names professionally – e.g., André Benjamin ("André 3000"), Jennifer Lopez ("J.Lo"); doctor/broadcaster Drew Pinsky ("Dr. Drew") – use the legal surname. If they use their mononym or pseudonym exclusively, then use that name (e.g. Aaliyah, Selena, Usher, and Madonna).

For fictional entities, use common names. For example, Jason, Luigi, and Wesker.

Culture-specific usages

 * Burmese names are personal names that consist of one or more words, with no patronymic or surname. Always use the full form of the person's name.
 * Ethiopian and Eritrean people are almost always referred to by their given name as they do not have a family name. There are some rare exceptions to this: where the person—usually a member of the later generations of the Eritrean diaspora or Ethiopian diaspora—has adopted the patronymic as a formal family name. Consider using the template.
 * Icelandic people with patronymics (which is most of them) may be referred to by their given name or their given name and patronymic, but not by their patronymic alone. Consider using.
 * Japanese historical (and some modern) figures may be conventionally known by either their family (clan) name and their given name or their given name only but not their family name only.
 * In Southeast Asia, many people use only a personal name, which may be followed by a patronymic; in such cases, they should be referred to by their personal name.
 * Mongolian people are referred to by their given name, with their patronymic placed in front of it, usually in genitive case. There are no family names. For more details, see Mongolian name and Ingenpedia:Naming conventions (Mongolian); consider placing.
 * Spanish and Portuguese naming customs generally call for one or more given names followed by a patronymic then a matronymic (and the latter two may be separated by y or another article). In most cases, the common name of such a person lacks the matronymic. Consider using or.
 * Thai people are almost always known and addressed by their first name (i.e. given name). Hence, on second and subsequent mentions, they should be referred to by first name alone.
 * In Vietnamese names, given names also take priority over family names. The given name, not the surname, should be used to refer to the person. The given name is nevertheless placed after the family name, following the East Asian naming scheme, even when written about in English.

People with the same surname
To distinguish between people with the same surname in the same article or page, use given names or complete names to refer to each of the people. For subsequent uses, refer to them by their given names for clarity and brevity. When referring to the person who is the subject of the article, use unless the reference is part of a list of family members or if use of the surname alone will be confusing. This applies to minors as well as adults. While citations and bibliographies should use full names even in subsequent mentions (if full names are the style for citations and bibliographies in the article), the body of an article should not unless confusion could result.

For example, in the text of an article on Ronald Reagan:


 * Correct: Ronald and Nancy Reagan arrived separately, Ronald by helicopter and Nancy by car.
 * Correct: The Reagans arrived separately, Ronald by helicopter and Nancy by car.
 * Redundant: Ronald and Nancy Reagan arrived separately; Ronald Reagan by helicopter and Nancy Reagan by car.

In the text of an article about the Brothers Grimm:
 * Correct: Jacob Grimm was 14 months older than his brother Wilhelm.
 * Redundant: Jacob Grimm was 14 months older than his brother Wilhelm Grimm.

Individuals distinguished with a generational suffix can be written about in Forename Suffix style to disambiguate from other family members in the same article: William Sr., John Jnr, James III. No comma is used in these short constructions.

If an article about a person mentions another person with the same surname who is not related by family or marriage, subsequent mentions of the other person should use the full name: In an article that is not about either unrelated person with the same surname, continue to refer to them both by their full names. Source citations, bibliographies, and in-text attributions usually include names of authors and others. Consider them when checking for people with the same surname.
 * Correct: Andrea Dworkin was the subject of biographical writing by Ronald Dworkin

Eponyms
Eponyms – derived usage of personal (or other) names, as in Parkinson's disease – capitalize the name portion, aside from conventionalized exceptions.

Titles of people
Overview: Titles should be capitalized when attached to an individual's name, or where the position/office is a globally unique title that is the subject itself, the term is the actual title or conventional translation thereof (not a description or rewording). Titles should not be capitalized when being used generically. Use titles where they are necessary for clarity or identification in the context, except in the lead sentence of a biographical subject's own article. Exact specifics may vary, as described in more detail below.

Non-English titles are most often translated into English, but this is left to editorial discretion and may be conventionalized across a category, based primarily on usage in English-language reliable sources (e.g. recipients of German knighthoods like Robert Ritter von Greim are not translated into "Sir Robert Greim", and are usually rendered in Robert von Greim form in running text; the Tibetan title Dalai Lama is far more familiar to English speakers than any literal or figurative translation.)

Hyphenation and compounds: When hyphenated and capitalized, e.g. Vice-president (as it is usually spelled in contexts other than US politics), the element after the hyphen is not capitalized. When an unhyphenated compound title is capitalized (unless this is simply because it begins a sentence), each word begins with a capital letter: In 1973, Vice President Agnew resigned. This does not apply to unimportant words, such as the of in White House Chief of Staff John Doe. Do not use a hyphen, dash, or slash to fuse two titles someone holds; give them separately: XYZCo Regional Director and Staff Counsel Janet Goldstein.

Positions, offices, and occupational titles
Offices, titles, and positions such as president, king, emperor, grand duke, lord mayor, pope, bishop, abbot, prime minister, chief financial officer, and executive director are common nouns and therefore should be in lower case when used generically: Mitterrand was the French president or There were many presidents at the meeting. They are capitalized only in the following cases:
 * When followed by a person's name to form a title, i.e., when they can be considered to have become part of the name: President Nixon, not president Nixon
 * When a title is used to refer to a specific person as a substitute for their name during their time in office, e.g., the Queen, not the queen (referring to Elizabeth II)
 * When a formal title for a specific entity (or conventional translation thereof) is addressed as a title or position in and of itself, is not plural, is not preceded by a modifier (including a definite or indefinite article), and is not a reworded description:

Even when used with a name, capitalization is for commercial and informal titles: OtagoSoft vice-president Chris Henare; team co-captain Chan.

The formality (officialness), specificity, or unusualness of a title is not a reason to capitalize it.

Academic titles and degrees
Academic and professional titles (such as "Dr." or "Professor"), including honorary ones, should be used in a Ingenpedia article only when the subject is widely known by a pseudonym or stage name containing such a title (whether earned or not). In this case, it may be included in the pseudonym as described above (e.g. Ruth Westheimer, better known as Dr. Ruth ...). However, verifiable facts about how a person attained his or her title should be included in the article.

Post-nominal letters for academic degrees following the subject's name (such as Steve Jones, PhD; Margaret Doe, JD) may occasionally be used within an article where the person with the degree is not the subject, to clarify that person's qualifications with regard to some part of the article, though this is usually better explained in descriptive wording. Avoid this practice otherwise. See.

Post-nominal letters
When the subject of an article has received honours or appointments issued either by the subject's state of citizenship or residence, or by a widely recognized organization that reliable sources regularly associate with the subject, post-nominal letters may be included in the lead section.


 * Stephen William Hawking (8 January 1942 – 14 March 2018) was an English theoretical physicist, cosmologist, and author who was director of research at ...

The lead sentence should be concise: Academic (including honorary) degrees and professional qualifications may be mentioned in the article, along with the above, but should be omitted from the lead, as should superseded honors (e.g., the lesser of two grades in an order), and those issued by other entities (e.g., sub-national organizations).

Post-nominal letters should either be separated from the name by a comma and each set divided by a comma, or no commas should be used at all. If a baronetcy or peerage is held, then commas should always be used for consistency's sake, as the former are separated from the name by a comma.

When an individual holds a large number of post-nominal letters or seldom uses them (common among heads of state and members of royal families), they should be omitted from the lead, and the titles only described in the main body of the article.

Post-nominals for honours awarded by the United Kingdom (e.g. KCB, CBE) may be used as soon as they are gazetted; investiture is not necessary.

Formatting post-nominals
Where this manual provides options, consistency should be maintained within an article unless there is a good reason to do otherwise. The Arbitration Committee has ruled that editors should not change an article from one guideline-defined style to another without a substantial reason unrelated to mere choice of style, and that revert-warring over optional styles is unacceptable. If discussion cannot determine which style to use in an article, defer to the style used by the first major contributor.

Editors should remember that the meaning of the most obvious (to them) post-nominal initials will not be obvious to some readers. When post-nominal initials are used, the meaning should be readily available to the reader. This may be via a wikilink to an article, or with the template (or its underlying  markup) which provides a mouse-over tooltip expanding the abbreviation.

This is all most easily done using the template:
 * :  gives:  Joe Bloggs,
 * :  gives:  Joe Bloggs

This template needs the 100% parameter when it is used in an infobox, or its output will be too small. Otherwise the 100% parameter is optional with or without commas.

At the least, use a piped link to an article with the appropriate title, e.g.:
 * gives: Joe Bloggs

This ensures that readers who hover over the initials see the target article's URL as a hint and in the status bar at the bottom of the window. This manual formatting is only needed for cases where does not handle the abbreviation in question. If there is nothing to link to, and a redlink is unlikely to result in eventual creation of an article, use the template to explain the acronym. Because there is an accessibility issue with relying exclusively on such tooltip cues (touch-sensitive devices and assistive technologies generally do not utilize mouse-cursor hovering), a link is preferred when available.

Post-nominals should not be added except to a biography subject's own lead sentence, in an infobox parameter for post-nominals, when the post-nominals themselves are under discussion in the material, and in other special circumstances such as a list of recipients of an award or other honor. For example, "Brian Lara" should not appear in an article like Warwickshire County Cricket Club.

Honorifics
Honorifics and styles of nobility should normally be capitalized, e.g., Her Majesty, His Holiness. They are not usually used in running text, though some may be appropriate in the lead sentence of a biographical article, as detailed below, or in a section about the person's titles and styles.

Honorific prefixes
In general, honorific prefixes—styles and honorifics in front of a name—in Ingenpedia's own voice should not be included, but may be discussed in the article. In particular, this applies to:
 * styles and honorifics derived from a title, position or activity, including The Most Noble, The Most Honourable, The Right Honourable, and The Honourable;
 * styles and honorifics related to royalty, clergy, and sainthood, such as Her Majesty, His Holiness, The Reverend, and The Venerable. Clergy should be named as described in Ingenpedia:Naming conventions (clergy).

There are some exceptions:
 * Where an honorific is so commonly attached to a name that the name is rarely found in English reliable sources without it, it should be included. For example, the honorific may be included for Mother Teresa.
 * Where a female historical figure is consistently referred to using the name of her husband and her birth name is unknown. For example, an honorific may be used for "Mrs. Alfred Jones".
 * The prenominals Sir, Dame, Lord and Lady are discussed in.
 * In Burmese names, honorifics may be preserved if they are part of the normal form of address, even for ordinary people. See U Thant for an example.
 * The Turkish honorific suffix Pasha is normally included in a notable person's name.

The inclusion of some honorific prefixes and styles is controversial. See Ingenpedia:Naming conventions (royalty and nobility) for use in article titles.

Knighthoods, lordships, and similar honorific titles
The honorific titles Sir, Dame, Lord and Lady are included in the initial reference and infobox heading for the subject of a biographical article, but are optional after that. The infobox heading includes pre-nominals, name and post-nominals as separate elements. The title is placed in bold in the first use of the name. Except for the initial reference and infobox, do not add honorific titles to existing instances of a person's name where they are absent, because doing so implies that the existing version is incorrect (similar in spirit to the guideline on British vs. US English spelling). Similarly, honorific titles should not be deleted when they are used throughout an article unless there is consensus. Where the use of an honorific title is widely misunderstood, this can be mentioned in the article; see, for example, Bob Geldof. Honorific titles used with forenames only (such as "Sir Elton", "Sir David", "Dame Judi") should be avoided unless this form is so heavily preferred in popular usage that the use of the surname alone would render the entire name unrecognizable.

Honorary knights and dames are not entitled to "Sir" or "Dame", only the post-nominal letters. Not all non-honorary inductees into an order of chivalry are entitled to use the pre-nominal titles, either, and may receive distinct post-nominals. For example, the Order of the British Empire has five classes, each with different post-nominals; only the senior two are entitled to Sir/Dame.

Titles signifying honours awarded by the United Kingdom (i.e. Sir, Dame) may be used as soon as they are gazetted. Investiture is not necessary.

Tense
Biographies of living persons should generally be written in the present tense, and biographies of deceased persons in the past tense. When making the change upon the death of a subject, the entire article should be reviewed for consistency. If a person is living but has retired, use is a former or is a retired rather than the past tense was.


 * Correct – John Smith (1946–2003) was a baseball pitcher ...
 * Correct – John Smith (born 1946) is a former baseball pitcher ...
 * Incorrect – John Smith (born 1946) was a baseball pitcher ...

Historical events should be written in the past tense in all biographies:


 * Smith played for the Baltimore Orioles between 1968 and 1972 ...

The present tense may be used when discussing the work of a writer or philosopher, even if they are dead: In his Institutes, Calvin teaches .... The general rule is to describe statements made in literature, philosophy, and art in the eternal present. Past tense should be used for news and marketing materials, public statements, and any other quoted or paraphrased material which is not itself a subject of consideration as a lasting work: Trump controversially referred to North Korean leader Kim Jong-un as "Little Rocket Man" in a September 23, 2017, tweet. (not ... refers ...).

Out-of-date material
It is best to avoid time-dependent statements, which can often be creatively rewritten anyway. When making any statements about current events, use the "As of" template; for example, "as of April 2011" or "in April 2011". If you're giving a precise date range from the past to the present, as with a living person's age or career, you may use the "Age" template. The article subject's age can also be calculated in the infobox.

There is no need to add "deceased" to a person's article, or those in which they are mentioned. If they have their own article, this should already be sourced. Otherwise, it is unnecessary. "Survived by" and "survivors", phrasings commonly found in obituaries, should not be used.

Order of events
In general, present a biography in chronological order, from birth to death, except where there is good reason to do otherwise. Within a single section, events should almost always be in chronological order.

Sexuality
Care should be taken to avoid placing undue weight on sexuality. A person's sexual orientation or activities should usually not be mentioned in the article lead unless related to the person's notability.

Authority control
Place at the foot of biographies (immediately above, if present). Add authority control identifiers (VIAF, ISNI, ORCID, etc.) in the subject's Ingendata entry, from where they will be automatically transcluded into the template.